Best Practices for Social Science Writing Essay Example for Free

Best Practices for Social Science Writing Essay Practices (24) , social science (10) company About StudyMoose Contact Careers Help Center Donate a Paper Legal Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy Complaints When social scientists write their research papers, they usually discuss the methods that they employed in gathering and analyzing their data and the results that they were able to generate using these methods. They however seldom concentrate on the writing process itself (Cuba, 1997). Writing in the field of social science requires the use of insight and research to better understand and make concrete observations and findings about the various behavioral elements. There are many methods of conducting social science studies namely through observations, interviews, surveys and case studies. However, when one starts writing the research paper that would embody these pertinent findings, the writer usually faces the challenges that many social science writers encounter. These problems include the complexities of achieving clarity, the potential for committing biases, writing in the first-person perspective, the use of quotations and in-text citations to support the analysis, and formatting styles particular to the field of social sciences. When writing one’s own research paper, it is important for a scholar in the field of social science to have a grasp of the basic writing techniques peculiar to social science in order to produce an academic paper that is relevant, informative and worth reading. The prevalence of search engines and the use of the World Wide Web have made it easier for scholars nowadays to conduct their studies and research with ease and in an expeditious manner. The libraries and other academic centers which make available to the public the latest references has also contributed to a great extent to achieving academic quality of various writings. Complexities in Achieving Clarity Like any other field of study, effective writing requires constant practice. This entails continuous process of writing, editing and rewriting ideas and use of words to convey these thoughts clearly to the intended audience (Cuba, 1997). Oftentimes, students of social science put off writing their research paper until they have completed doing all their research and compiled their bibliography. This practice however sometimes leads to insufficient time in writing the paper itself. In order to achieve clarity when writing a social science research paper, Hult (1996) enumerated the two components that must be considered: rhetorical question and organization. The components of a rhetorical situation include 1) the writer’s purpose; 2) the writer’s persona; 3) the potential readers or audience; 4) the subject matter and; 5) the appropriate language or tone (Hult, 1996). In starting the research write-up, the writer must determine the purpose of his paper and he must be able to define it clearly throughout the entire paper. The purpose need not be complex. A simple purpose will do so long as the readers can have a grasp of what the research is all about. Writers in the field of social science must also avoid writing in the first-person persona as this will affect the objectivity of their research. Identifying the intended audience will also help the writer in deciding what specific issues to discuss and what areas to avoid. For example, a person writing in the field of political science will have to consider political analysts as his potential readers. The subject matter is the most important aspect of the rhetorical situation (Hult, 1996). A writer must carefully select his thesis statement and decide from the materials gathered what facts must be included as well as those which need not be discussed. Furthermore, the research writer might also consider providing a glossary of terms when writing on a technical subject in order to make it easier for the readers to understand the language and tone of the research paper. Omitting Biases and Avoiding First Person Writing Style It is not uncommon practice in the field of social science to write using the first person persona. Writing from the first person perspective however indicates subjectivity in arriving at one’s own research findings and this in turn diminishes the objectivity of the research. In order to be more persuasive, the writer must couch his paper from a third person perspective so as to avoid the impression that he is impelled more by his own biases rather than reporting the facts gathered from relevant data. Omitting biases should be the foremost consideration of every social science writer because this field requires objectiveness and keen understanding of the facts and data. Unlike writers in the field of literature who have unbridled discretion to unleash their feelings and emotions in their papers, social science writers are bound by their duty to report the facts as they appear and not as they think it should be. The field of social science is primarily detail-oriented and must be supported by relevant, empirical, and reliable facts. In order to avoid biases, the writer must always dwell on the facts gathered and must use relevant sources to support his findings. Primary and secondary sources play an important role in the persuasiveness of one’s research work because the extent of the credibility of a research paper is to a great extent determined by the depth of research done by the researcher to support his study. The writer must also avoid labeling his chosen population or individual participants to avoid offending the readers. When dealing with a particular ethnic group or race, it is advisable to call them as they would like to be called. In order to avoid language biases, use the terminology applicable in the research itself. For example, when reporting on a study conducted on two types of participants, it is advisable to describe them according to how they were classified in the given study provided the labels are in themselves not offensive per se. Minimizing the Use of Quotations A writer’s source material must be in the form of paraphrases and summaries. However, paraphrased materials must still be properly documented either through in-text citations or footnotes or endnotes. Hult (1996) added that putting source material in your own words will improve the flow of your paper since the paraphrased style will blend with your own writing style and will thus contribute to its consistency. Minimize the use of direct quotations. The use of too many direct quotations distracts the reader and it also minimizes coherence of the writing style. It also leaves the impression that the writer knows little about his topic and is in fact relying heavily on what others have come up with (Hult, 1996). What the writer can do is paraphrase or summarize the portion of the materials used and document it properly. If using direct quotes cannot be avoided, the following principles are helpful in incorporating them smoothly in the research paper. First, when using quotations with four lines or less in length, enclose them with quotation marks and incorporate them in the text. Second, quotes should be introduced using the verb tense which is consistent with the tense of the quoted material. Third, change the capital letter to lower case and vice versa, within the quote if necessary. Fourth, enclosed in brackets the letter or words inserted inside the quoted material to separate them from the quoted material itself. Fifth, use ellipsis to signal that a material has been omitted from the quote. Sixth, punctuate the direct quote as it appears from the original. Seventh, a period or a comma which is part of the quote should be placed inside the quotation marks. Eighth, use a colon to introduce a quote which is more than one sentence or if the introductory material prior to the quoted portion is too long. Ninth, use a comma for short quotes (Hult, 1996). Using In-text Citations to Support Analysis A researcher who intends to make use on in-text citation in his write-up should keep in mind the American Psychological Association (APA) style which requires the use of past tense or present perfect tense when referring to earlier research materials. For example, it is incorrect to say â€Å"Smith (2008) states that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  when referring to Smith’s research findings. Instead, the researcher must employ the past or present perfect tense; hence, the in-text citation should appear like this: â€Å"Smith (2008) stated/has stated that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In-text citations must follow the author-date format under the APA citation style, e. g. , (Smith, 2008) and a complete documentation of the source must appear in the reference list. Electronic sources are cited in the same manner as citing a printed document, e. g. , (Purdue University Online Writing Lab, 2008). For sources with no date available, place â€Å"n. d. † (meaning â€Å"no date†) after the author’s last name, e. g. , (Smith, n. d. ). Formatting Expectations A writer must see to it that his paper is professional in appearance. This is not to say however that attention to format should be every social science writer’s foremost consideration. It is also equally important to confer with your instructor as to what should be the appropriate format style for the particular paper. When preparing the paper, it is best to be conservative when it comes to formatting style rather than be ostentatious and vulgar, thus making the paper look less serious and informal. Hence, margin must not be justified on both side of the page but only on the left side only. The American Psychological Association (APA) is the most commonly used citation style format in the field of social sciences. The guidelines provided under the APA provides a useful tool in writing research papers, using in-text citations and reference page and using footnotes or endnotes. Under the APA formatting style, page headers are required to be placed in the upper right-hand of every page. This page header must contain the first two to three words of the title followed by the page number. The title page should already show include the page header. A running head must also appear on the first line of the title page flush-left. On the upper half of the page, centered, the full title of the paper, the name of the writer and university or affiliation must be indicated (Purdue University Online Writing Lab, 2008). Research papers are normally comprised of the title page, the abstract (if appropriate), the main body, the references, and the appendixes (if appropriate). The abstract need not be written for short research papers but for published research reports, an abstract is always required regardless of the length of the paper (Hult, 1996). Appendix may be used to include raw data and other information that need not appear in the main body but is likewise important in the research paper. It is located after the reference page and is labeled sequentially in letters. The reference page must include all the sources used in the research paper. The sources must be in alphabetical order by author’s last name and need not be numbered. Conclusion Writing is a necessary aspect of social research (Cuba, 1997). A good research means that the writer gave great effort in collecting and organizing his data as well as in organizing his findings in a coherent and scholarly manner suitable to the academic community he intends to present his study to. In preparing the research paper, every writer in the field of social science must consider the pertinent style guides applicable. The writing process is an analytic strategy that can only be improved through practice. This necessarily means that every social science researcher preparing his paper must open to revisions. The first draft must not be the final paper. Every writer must be also be willing to take constructive criticism from his colleagues because all too often, a writer cannot see the errors of his own work unless others point them out. Letting others read your research paper will help you in assessing some of the loopholes in your own arguments. Writing in the field of social sciences is an important aspect of the research itself because the manner in which a given study is presented contributes to the persuasiveness of the one’s findings and output. As such, it is important to be familiar with the writing techniques, styles, and formats applicable in your field of research so as to avoid mistakes and errors in presenting your research. The APA citation format style is a helpful tool in the social sciences and every scholar in this field must familiarize himself this formatting to avoid the inconvenience of revising and rewriting the research paper. The social science paper must be formal as to its structure and form and the writer must avoid using first person persona that is usually employed in the literary field. The sentences must be well-crafted and concise and must clearly reflect in a coherent and thorough manner the findings of the researcher without the need of extravagant words or details. Social science research writing is a challenging task for every writer. It requires practice and hard work just like collecting the data itself. It is an inevitable part of every researcher’s academic life and it cannot be avoided. Hence, every researcher must be familiar with the format and style peculiar to this field in order to increase the success of one’s research paper. References Cuba, Lee (1997). Short Guide to Writing About Social Science (4th Ed. ). Addison-United States: Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Gerring, John, Yesnowitz, Joshua & Bird, Stephen (2004). General Advice on Social Science Writing. Retrieved August 1, 2008 from http://people. bu. edu/jgerring/documents/Adviceonessaywriting. pdf Hult, Christine (1996). Researching and Writing in the Social Sciences. Boston, Allyn and Bacon. Hess, Diana (2007). From Banished to Brother Outsider, Miss Navajo to An Inconvenient Truth: Documentary Films as Perspective-Laden Narratives. Social Education 71 (4), 194-199. McDonald, Susan, MD. Social Science Writing Guide. Retrieved August 1, 2008 from http://www. emayzine. com/lectures/writing. htm Mullen, Carol (2006). Best Writing Practices for Graduate Students: Reducing the Discomfort of the Blank Screen. Retrieved August 1, 2008 from http://cnx. org/content/m14054/latest/ Przeworski, Adam and Salomon, Frank (1995). The Art of Writing Proposals: Some Candid Suggestions to Social Science Research Council Competitions. Social Science Research Council. Retrieved August 1, 2008 from http://fellowships. ssrc. org/art_of_writing_proposals/ Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) (19 June 2008). APA Formatting and Style Guide. Retrieved August 2, 2008 from http://owl. english. purdue. edu/owl/resource/560/01/http://Web address for OWL resource. Watts, Michael. The Holy Grail: In Pursuit of the Dissertation Proposal. Institute of International Studies. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved August 1, 2008 from http://globetrotter. berkeley. edu/DissPropWorkshop/process/InPursuitofPhD. pdf Best Practices for Social Science Writing. (2016, Aug 01). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

(Technology Supporting Business Processes 2 ) Assignment

(Technology Supporting Business Processes 2 ) - Assignment Example This has been through a number of aspects. First, the use of information system in businesses has largely shaped the decisions. Reason being; it can deliver all information needed. Consequently, with the availability of updated information business can make informed decisions. For example, in the event that the business owners are to choose between two factors, the system derives key indicators (costs, income, etc) for both. Therefore, this will result into making a choice that will be more efficient and competitive (How Information System Impact Organizations and Businesses, 2013). Second, the use of information system in business setting has influenced increased productivity. This is because automation of the process in a business increases the production speed. Moreover, this shifts employees’ attention to other duties that require critical thinking. Consequently, this makes the business more competitive. Furthermore, information system reduces the number of workers. As a result, the business will minimize expenses and increase profitability (Goessl, 2010). Third, information systems provide an efficient and effective way to store data. This enables quick accessibility. As a result, costs associated with setting up storage units are minimized (Doom, 2010). In conclusion, it is evident that through the incorporation of information business system, businesses are positively affected. This is because it minimizes costs associated with the production. Consequently, this ensures that businesses are competitive. Goessl, L. (2010, February). Advantages of Using Information System in Business. Retrieved July Thursday, 2014, from Inside Business: http://www.insidebusiness360.com/index.php/advantages-of-using-information-systems-in-business-14410/ How Information System Impact Organizations and Businesses. (2013). Retrieved July Thursday, 2014, from Slide

Business Communication 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business Communication 4 - Assignment Example 7 2.5 TEAM WORK 2.5.1 Team work and synergy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 7 2.5.2 Relationship of team members †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.7 2.5.3 Conflict/problems in teams†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 3.2 Informal communication networks †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.8 3.3 ACTIVE LISTENING †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 3.4 INTERVIEWING †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 3.5 TEAM WORK †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 1.1 Terms of reference This report was requested to gauge individual and team understanding on how communication affects organizational performance. It is also meant to determine how interpersonal communication skills can be applied in business situations. This will be done in consideration of the circumstances presented by the Hall Furniture study. The understanding and consequent reporting will be done as part of a group project to be submitted on Frida y 31 May, 2013 by 4 pm. 1.2 Procedure The information to be employed in completion of this report will be gathered from: The provided Hall Furniture case study Journals on organization communication and interpersonal communication Past case studies, evaluations and manuals on interpersonal communication 2.2 Informal communication networks 2.2.1 An informal communication pattern/networks An example of an informal communication pattern is one adopted by the accounting department in Hall furniture. The informal communication pattern was adopted as a result of the frustrating formal structure through which formal requests took a long time to process (Krizan, 2006). This translated to frustrated employees as they could not get things done fast enough. As a way to ensure fast responses they established a random means of communication. They would arbitrarily tell one person who would get the message to another party and this way the information would travel faster ensuring easier and faste r feedback thus improved productivity. This form of informal communication, also called â€Å"Grapevine† allows for rumor dispersion and it is often a risky approach once it is the preferred means of communication as objectivity is lost (Krizan, 2006). 2.2.2 Problems with informal communication networks Informal communication networks have a great potential to cause problems within an organization such as Furniture Hall. These problems result because informal communication allows for information distortion. Distortion is most common as this means of communication does not follow any defined rules or channels (Guffey & Loewy, 2013). This means that they can be a means of transmitting any form of information and to any person irrespective of whom without respect or fear. This method also lacks confidentiality; this is because everyone can freely interrelate as there are no restrictions (Krizan, 2006). Any secret is likely to come to the fore with little thought or hesitation. A nother major

Marketing MA Management and International Business Essay -- Business a

Marketing MA Management and International Business Introduction CRM is a term for methodologists, technologies and e-commerce capabilities -used by companies to manage customer relationships. (Foss, 2001:1) It is also called customer management, customer care and sometimes customer centricity or customer-centric management. (Brown, 2000:1) All the names and definitions of CRM have customer, as its core-it is the management of customer relationships, which attempts to revolutionize marketing and reshape entire business models. To survive and grow the business must make a profit. To make a profit it has to find people who are willing to pay more for its products/services than they cost. Therefore profit comes from customers. All Profit comes from customers So if no profit=no business And no customers=no profit Then no customers=no business Therefore customers ARE the business The idea of CRM is not new-it was the way the local shopkeeper treated his customer-he knew him, knew what was happening in his life, what he was buying, (one to one marketing?) etc. What is new though is that nowadays the retailers try to establish dialog with tens of thousands or even millions of customers in an attempt to understand them better, their individual needs and maximise the lifetime value of this relationship. In this respect it is not ‘revolution’ of marketing, but rather ‘evolution’. The old model of doing business is back into action but armed with technology and different schemes to reach the customer and retain them for life. The four types of CRM programmes, described by Stanley (2000) are aimed at enabling the company to win back customers, who have defected or are planning to, (Win Back or Save), to create loyalty among customers (Retail Loyalty), to up-sell or cross sell services to these customers (Cross Sell/Up-Sell) and to prospect for new customers (Prospecting) Retail Loyalty "Loyalty is a feeling or attitude of devoted attachment and affection; or the act of binding oneself (intellectually or emotionally) to a course of action. (http://dictionary.reference.com) In everyday life loyalty implies emotional commitment to family and friends, fidelity in marriage. It also suggests monogamy-one choice above all others. (Humby et.al, 2003:9) In this sense loyalty is something expected. But when it comes to... ...ce a Customer, Always a Customer† Dublin: Oak Tree Press Foss, B., Stone, M., (2001) â€Å"Successful Customer Relationship Marketing† London: Kogan Page Gilbert, D., (1999) â€Å"Retail Marketing Management† Harlow: FT/Pitman Humby, C. et al., (2003) â€Å"Scoring Points† London: Kogan Page Oliver R. (1997) â€Å"Research† New York: McGraw Hill Omar, O (1999) â€Å"Retail Marketing† London:FT Management Reichheld, R. (1996) â€Å"The Quest for Loyalty† Boston: Harvard Business School Press Daley, J (2004)† Is a toaster a fair swap for your loyalty as a shopper?† The Independent (http://proquest.umi.com) Davis, H. (2002) â€Å"Marketing is all about intellectual use of data† Loyalty Guide Jones, K (2002) â€Å"Are you exploiting the potential of your customer base?† Loyalty Guide http://www.at1.uk.com/Loyalty_Fundamentals.htm www.bbc.co.uk/cgi-bin/search/results. asda+loyalty+scheme www.foodanddrinkeurope.com/news/news- -loyalty-cards http://www.mori.com/polls/2002/blacksun.shtml 2002) http://money.guardian.co.uk/(Datamonitor report by E.Ripley) www.mori.com http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/52056.stm Cross J. (2004) Lecture notes Southampton, University College

How nature of crime presented by the media Essay

_INTRODUCTION_ A considerable amount of literature consistently argues that the way crime is portrayed in the media significantly differs from what official records and research tell us, that is to say, that the media is said to misrepresent the crime problem. Five main arguments are presented demonstrating that the media distorts the crime problem. First, the media tend to report on crimes that are considered `newsworthy.’ Second, it is argued that the media’s role is that of an agenda-setter. Third, media reporting on crime is supportive of law enforcement agencies but is negative towards courts. Fourth, the media reports on crime that escalates public anxiety to such an extent that it can lead to moral panic about particular crimes. Fifth, stereotypes of both victims and offenders dominate media representations of crime. It is believed that the media is the public’s primary source of knowledge about crime and it has exploited this by inaccurately presenting the nature of cri me to our society. _DISCUSSION_ The first argument supporting that the media distorts the crime problem is that the reporting of crime is selective and the types of crimes reported in the media are those deemed `newsworthy.’ Media compete in a marketplace to attract as large an audience as possible as they are profit orientated organisations. Consequently, crimes are selectively reported and are generally reported in ways that conform to news values of the immediate, the novel, the dramatic, and so on, which reinforce already established images of threat from crime. The assumption that the volume of crime is high and rising is one of the main arguments advanced by society. In Australia, studies have shown that a substantial proportion of the population incorrectly believe that crime rates are increasing when, in fact, they are  stable or declining (Indermaur D & Roberts L, 2005). The discrepancy between the crime rate and the public’s perceived crime rate has been commonly attributed to the expansive media coverage of crime, especially violent and more sensationalised crime (Duffy B, 2008). The media is the primary source of indirect knowledge of the crime problem and by selectively presenting crime to society in a dramatised and sensationalized manner; it has lead to the myth that the volume of crime is high and rising. The second line of reasoning is that some contend that the media’s construction of crime is more than just selective, it is that of an agenda-setter (Surette R, 1996). As an agenda-setter, the media defines the problem of crime in a way that sets parameters of discussion and debate. The impact of agenda-setting is that only some types of crime are brought to the public’s attention and in the same way, only some kinds of criminal justice responses are presented as solutions to control crime. Research has found that the media reports the nature of crime in a way that brings crime and its control to the foremost issue of policy-makers’ assessing imperative social problems (Teece M & Makkai T, 2000). The assumption that sentences are too lenient is one of the main arguments advanced by society and a perfect example of the media pushing its own agenda. The public depend on the media almost exclusively for their information about sentencing and recent data from the Australian Survey of Social Attitudes show that 70% of respondents agreed that `people who break the law should be given stiffer sentences’ (Indermaur & Roberts, 2005). However, most criminal matters proceeding to court are finalised at the Magistrates Court, i.e. without a jury. With this in mind, it shows that the media have a great impact on setting the public agenda and initiating discussion and debate by inaccurately presenting the crime problem. The third argument correspondingly elucidates that the media’s reporting on crime is often deceptively supportive of police or law enforcement agencies but is negative towards courts. This is due to the media depending largely on limited, easily accessible sources – often authorities such as police, and therefore presents a one-sided picture (Teece M & Makkai T, 2000). Police are privileged sources to the media and therefore the police-media  relationship is mutually rewarding as it generates an effective and successful image for the police, as well as providing information to the media about crime. This substantiates the grounds of the support devoted to law enforcement agencies by the media. Furthermore, as previously verified, the fact that the media pushes its own agenda and as a result the public view in regard to sentencing is that sentencing is too lenient evidences the fact that the media discourage the courts. In this way, the media distorts the nature of cri me presented to our society and leads society to obtain high confidence in services provided by police and minimal support towards courts. The fourth argument is that violent crimes that induce feelings of anger and panic in the public are generally the only types of crime that the media present to us and are reported in such a way that they seem the most common types of crime committed in society. Public anxiety about crime can be escalated to such an extent that it can lead to a moral panic about a particular crime, specifically violent crime. The assumption that a large proportion of crimes involve violence is one of the main arguments advanced by society. However, research consistently finds that in western countries the media over-reports violent crimes, especially murder, sexual-assault and assault (Hayes H & Prenzler T, 2009). A study of public perceptions in Australia by Indermaur (2005) found that three in four people overestimated by a large margin the proportion of crimes involving violence. In fact, violent crime statewide declined 6 per cent in 2004 to continue a downward trend that began in the early 1990’s (Bavis B & Dossetor L, 2010). The media has presented the nature of crime in our society exceedingly inaccurately to the point that it has led our society to deem that most crimes involve violence. The fifth line of reasoning is that the media’s representation of crime, predominantly violent and sexual offences, is _stranger danger._ This depicts that victims are selected at random by offenders they do not know. The media constructs images of risk and these images lie in line with conceptions of _stranger danger_ rather than _fear of the near_. The assumption that offenders do not know their victims is one of the main  arguments advanced by society. Contrary to popularised media reporting, research evidence shows that most victims are not victimised by strangers (Tiby E, 2009). In fact, females are more likely to become the victims of violence from someone they know, e.g. a partner or family member (Hayes H & Prenzler T, 2009). Accordingly, the media’s inaccurate representation of _stranger danger_ has distorted the nature of crime presented to our society, leading to the myth that offenders usually do not know their victims. _CONCLUSION_ The nature of crime in our society is not accurately presented by the media. The evidence is clear that the media is society’s primary source of knowledge about crime and has outlined some key elements about the influence of media reporting that shapes how society accept, relate and react to the nature of crime. Most media are businesses operating for profit and therefore they compete in a marketplace to attract as large an audience as possible, therefore the media report on crimes that are deemed `newsworthy,’ conforming to news values. Its role is that of an agenda-setter and in this way deceivingly supports law enforcement agencies and criticises courts. Media has the capacity to escalate public fear of crime by selectively focusing on a particular crime as more prevalent and stereotyping both victims and offenders. For these reasons, it is evident that the nature of crime in our society is not accurately presented by the media as it has lead society to believe vario us myths. _REFERENCES_ Bavis, B & Dossetor, L. (2010). Misperceptions of crime in Australia. _Trend and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice (396)._ Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/fullText;dn=20103330;res=AGISPT Duffy, B. Wake, R. Burrows, T. Bremner, P. (2008). Closing the gaps-crime and public perceptions. _International Review of Law, Computers &_ _Technology Vol._ _22_: 17-44. London: UK. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=19b4d519-d160-4062-a7d9-20ea3ba483ee%40sessionmgr13&vid=6&hid=106 Hayes, H. Prenzler, T. (2009). _Introduction to crime and criminology 2__nd_ _ed._ Australia: Pearson Australia Group. Indermaur, D. & Roberts, L. (2005), `Perception of Crime and Justice,’ in _Australian Social Attitudes,_ UNSW Press, Sydney. Surette, R. (1996). `News from Nowhere, Policy to Follow: Media and the Social Construction of Three Strikes and You’re Out.’ _Three Strikes and_ _You’re Out: Vengeance as Public Policy_, Thousand Oaks. Teece, M. & Makkai, T. (2000). Print Media Reporting on Drugs and Crime, 1995 – 1998. _Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice (158)_. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/fullText;dn=20010687;res=AGISPT Tiby, E. (2009). Stranger-Danger or Fear of the Near? Accounts on Fear of Sexual Abuse. _Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention_. Retrieved from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/999873_751313171_917284778.pdf

Islamophobia In The Daily Mail Inciting Racial Hatred - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5601 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Tags: Islam Essay Did you like this example? Islamophobia is defined in the dictionary as being: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hatred or fear of Muslims or of their politics or cultureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11th and the London 7/7 bombings amongst others, some say islamophobia within the media has increased significantly. This work intends to discuss the coverage of Muslims and the religion of Islam as a whole within the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"middle marketà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ newspaper The Daily Mail and explore whether publications such as the Mail are representing the Muslim race in a negative light. Oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interest in the subject matter involved is one that has derived from what is seen, amongst others, as bad journalism; middle market and tabloid newspapers inaccurately reporting issues concerning races such as Muslims. On a daily basis one can pick up a newspaper these days and spot numerous flaws, incorrect language or overall representation of a religion such as Islam. Also, a personal affliction or view in the area is the way in which Muslim communities within the UK are slowly being isolated and are being criticised collectively for the actions of a small population of the religion. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Islamophobia In The Daily Mail Inciting Racial Hatred" essay for you Create order When exploring the relationship between the modern West and the East, one should look upon the concept of Orientalism. Saidà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1978) work draws on the concept of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Orientalism is never far from what Denys Hay has called the idea of Europe, a collective notion identifying à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Europeans as against all à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“thoseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? non-Europeansà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Said, 1978: 7). This notion refers to the historical manufacturing of Eastern beings as alien, the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, by the West. It is the negative portrayal of extremist Islamic images within frameworks such as the Mail that progresses, as Halliday (1996)(remember reference for this!, see notebook [2]) suggests, this à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"myth of confrontationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ that pardons à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the Westà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of any need to excuse its enmity towards the E ast and religions such as Islam. Before this paper looks at effects of the theory of islamophobia, it is worth evaluating the polarity of the term itself. Whilst some could say the branding of the term can draw attention to the issue for positive means, further comprehensive literature on the subject and enquiries commissioned (e.g. 1997 Runnymede Trust, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All), there is a flipside. Academics have inferred that this is just another, more refined form of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"new racismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ according to many sociologists. Sociologist Professor Gerard Delanty describes the use of the term islamophobia: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“It is rooted in mainstream hostility to migrant workers and asylum-seekers, and is based to a considerable degree on ethnocentrism and xenophobia à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ on ignorance and fear of the otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Delanty: Conference, see notebook for full reference[1]). Delanty is saying here that the categorisation of the idiom of islamophobia could be creating a new f orm of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"acceptableà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ racism. The UK media industry is said by some to be institutionally racist: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“This racism is rooted in the countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s imperial past, with feelings of racial superiority and crude nationalism now deeply embedded in the dominant cultureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. (Keeble, 2009: 175) 2 per cent of the NUJ membership was black, Asian and Arab in the first media-industry wide survey in 1995 by Anthony Delano and John Henningham. Comparing this alongside the national ethnic minority population percentage of 5.26 percent at the time, and it does speak volumes. My research will include a plan to address this view and explore how far or to what extent this reflects an islamophobic nature within newspapers such as The Daily Mail. However, to discuss how à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"deep rootedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ this patriotism, or national feeling of superiority over other races goes would be discursive from the intended discussion of the titleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s topic. The role of a national newspaper such as the Mail needs to be highlighted to display the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"contextualisingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ link between islamophobia and the public. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The fact that a familiar newspaper offers a sense of identity and possible security to its regular readers is an important contextualising factor when considering questions of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"raceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and ideology.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Ferguson, 1998:175) Considering middle market newspapers such as The Daily Mail and Express along with the tabloids represent more than two thirds of the national daily readership figures (1997 survey: do footnote for this), this is a first base argument for explaining the negative (potential) effect of the press on the masses. A matter to take in to consideration is the recent resignation of Daily Star journalist Richard Peppiatt, on the grounds of the papers islamophobic content. Albeit a personal letter to the Daily Starà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s proprietor Richard Desmond, the letter highlights a wide range of anti-Islamic features in the everyday characteristics of national newspapers such as the Star and Mail and labels the former as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"anti-Muslim propagandaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The letter does refer to how closely the content of the Star is to the Mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s through criticism of how the newspapers editors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"build a newspaper from cut-and-paste-jobs off the Daily Mail websiteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Where he admits to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"stirring up a bit of light-hearted Islamophobiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ himself on the basis that this was in his professional duties at the Star, his disapproval of this demonization is prevalent throughout. He refers to a story the paper published conc erning the condemnation of taxpayer-funded Muslim-only public toilets: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“I was personally tasked with writing a gloating follow-up declaring our postmodern victory in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“blockingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? the non-existent Islamic cisterns of evilà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Peppiatt, 2011). This could just be seen as one individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal attack on a proprietor and therefore not have much worth but it does relate to, and support the theory of institutional racism within the British media. For the proposed intentions of this paper, it is worth noting the presence of Muslims within Britain. In the 2001 UK Census the population of Muslims from all ethnic groups within Britain was just short of 1.6 million (insert reference to table of figures in appendices here). The age old argument from many anti-immigration supporters is that the Muslims within Britain do not attempt to immerse themselves within British culture or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"ourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ way of life, owing to increased tensions between the two cultures. Figures show that nearly half (46.4%) of all British Muslims now living in England were born in the country. It could be said that those Muslims who came to the country as adults (first generation) are grateful for the chance to live in a more open society and therefore more willing to integrate themselves within à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"ourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ culture. The sooner Western societies such as Britain aid this process of integration with the likes of firs t generation Muslims, the better. As the younger (3rd and 4th) generation of Muslims born in England grows, we could see Muslim communities become increasingly ostracised due to young Muslims anger towards the role of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the Westà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in Muslim lands and issues such as islamophobia within the media becoming more customary. It is also worth presenting the PCC editorial guidelines with regards to discrimination: The press must avoid prejudicial or pejorative reference to an individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s race, colour, religion, gender, sexual orientation or to any physical or mental illness or disability. The second part of the guideline refers to the details of those minority groups and how one should avoid inclusion (of those details) unless necessary to the story. The way in which newspapers such as the Daily Mail steer their content around these guidelines, in order to include xenophobic à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"viewsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ will be explored later in the literature review. As this paper explores the surrounding themes of discrimination and false representation within the media and directs them towards the influence of a certain publication, it is important to draw from relevant history of the Daily Mail. Some would say the newspapers prejudice against religions such as Islam is a product of its deep-set DNA shown via the papers sympathetic views of Nazi Germany during the war period. The first joint proprietor and owner Lord Rothermere was known to be a friend and supporter of both Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler and praised the Nazi regimeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s accomplishments, which directed the Mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s political stance and was consequently used as propaganda by them. Lord Rothermere published quotes such as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the minor misdeeds of individual Nazis would be submerged by the immense benefits the new regimes already bestowing on Germanyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Rothermere, 1933), as well as printing headlines such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“H urrah for the Blackshirtsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Mail, Jan 1934). The Mail was also sympathetic to Oswald Mosley and the British Union of Fascists. The support for this group was withdrawn after violence at a BUF rally in Kensington Olympia in 1934, which displays the potential harmful influence of newspapers on the masses. Muslims within Britain have struggled with issues of integration and racism ever since there was an increased focus of attention from the media on the Iranian Revolution of 1979 (Asad 1990, see references in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"muslim britainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ book). Television screens across the world showed three million people celebrating on the streets of Tehran when Ayatollah Khomeini, known for his support of hostage takers and his calling for the death of British citizen Salman Rushdie, came out of exile; a disconcerting image for most Westerners. The Salman Rushdie affair in 1989 demonstrated the degree to which the media and British Muslims who protested against the bookà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (The Satanic Verses) publication became à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"emotionally unhingedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Parekh 1992, see same book + ref) over the issue. The book deeply offended Muslims and ignited debate on blasphemy laws and freedom of speech. Other historical events have all played a part in what Hu ntingtonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1996) thesis describes as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clash of civilisationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, these being: The Gulf War (1990-1), the genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1993-6), the Oklahoma bombing (1995), the Taliban in Afghanistan (1997-2002), Grozny and Kosovo (1999), the recent Palestinian Intifada (since September 2000) and the War on Iraq (2003) (Abbas 2005: 14). These events have and the media , some say (Huntington 1996) widened the gulf between East and West, Islam and Christianity and amplified the theory of Orientalism. (maybe do a little on September 11 attacks here) This paper intends to explore and discuss the different factors owing to the islamophobic content displayed in the Mail and how far it is damaging the representation of Muslim communities within Britain. It would be pointless to explain how islamophobic reporting increased or decreased over the past decade or so as it would be plain to see the increases in islamophobic content around the times of terrorist activities. One will analyse contributing factors such as the origins of islamophobia, the identification of islamophobic content, how closely does that content abide by editorial guidelines and the effect on Muslim communities through critical discussion of the topic and data analysis. The reason as to why one thinks this subject is important and would be of interest to others is the increasing multi-cultured population of Britain. As more ethnic minorities such as Muslims continue to live in Britain, increasing tensions towards people of a particular race can only put more strain on an already weak relationship with Muslim communities. The purpose of the paper is to critically evaluate and characterize publications, specifically The Daily Mail and its role in reinforcing or articulating racism, and in damaging ethnic cultural identities. The ways in which these issues are to be addressed and analysed will be explained through my research and its content analysis. Literature review The aim of this chapter is to identify themes relating to the title topic from previous published literature and critically analyse those premises. The intention here is not just to identify those relating themes, but to analyse, criticise, interpret and evaluate those themes in connection with supporting or opposing the underpinning arguments of this paper. Over the past decade or so there is has been an increase in the amount of writing, due to rising concerns from Muslims worldwide, explaining how discourses such as newspapers in Western media are misrepresenting ethnic minorities such as Muslims through presenting a negative image of Islam. My research will however focus on the Daily Mail in particular, portraying negative stereotypes, and the effects those portrayals have, on Muslim communities within Britain. In summary, this chapter will draw from prior literature and examine the complex structures and strategies of news reports and how they affect the interpretations of reade rs. How much does the role of publications such as the Mail play in the reproduction of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"racialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and ethnic inequality in British society. Some of the earliest writing relating to British newspapers such as the Mail portraying Islam as a threat to Western interests comes from Teun van Dijkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s: Racism and the Press. The issue of immigration within British newspapers is one that allows anti-Muslim voices to be heard, subjectively criticising the rise in the multiculturalism of Britain: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Mail specifically focuses on alleged abuses of British à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hospitalityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, and calls for stricter immigration rules. It does not hesitate to publish, with apparent approval, overtly racist statements by right-wing politicians who claim that without further curbs on immigration Britain may become the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“dustbinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Van Dijk, 1991: 96) What Van Dijk is inferring is that through government policies concerning issues such as immigration, any right-wing anti-immigration views from politicians or people within the public eye will be published by the Mail with the noticeable support of the paper. Whilst highlighting the political stance and nationalistic nature of the publication, a defence for the paper would revert to free press every time. The earliest and most relevant research in this topic area has also been carried out by Teun Van Dijk. His work in the collection of empirical data surrounding the press and issues of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"raceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is a starting point for anybody analysing institutional islamophobic contentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s effect on British Muslims. Van Dijk started this foundational research in plain content analysis of British newspapers, analysing content such as the repetition of certain words used in headlines in attempt to rouse certain meanings from them. He describes the repetitive use of certain topics of discourse such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"blackà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"raceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and how they are dealt with by the press as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"semantic macro structuresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“These global, overall meaning structures of a text consist of a hierarchically arranged set of macro-propositions, which are derived from the meanings (propositions) of the sentences by way of macro-rules. These rules reduce the complex information of the text to its essential gist.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Van Dijk, 1991: 72) Van Dijk is correct in some ways in saying that the prevalence of such vocabulary would suggest that the discursive agenda of newspapers is entrenched in concerns with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"raceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. In his book Representing Race, Robert Ferguson agrees there are some uses of Van Dijkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s research: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“It would seem from this as though the media are enganged in an endless process of reproducing already existing prejudices and stereotypes. The extensive content analysis which was undertaken by Van Dijk also demonstrated that ethnic minorities and anti-racists are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"systematically associated with conflict, crime, intolerance and unreliability.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Ferguson, 1998: 130) The flaws in Van Dijkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s research are that using empirical data, or strictly content analysis, to develop an understanding of representation can somewhat distort the power of ideology in newspapers text or framing. However, without being blatantly racist, newspapers such as the Mail through concepts of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"normalityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ can still give strength to negative representations. (Maybe use this paragraph in methods) The detrimental representations of Muslim asylum seekers to Britain, in publications such as the Mail, are highlighted in Arun Kundnanià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s The End of Tolerance. Phrases such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"we have to look after our own people firstà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, a regular idiom in the Mail, gives strength to the inherent belief within Britain that we cannot satisfactorily provide for ourselves, never mind foreigners or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ as well. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Thanks to the opportunism of media and politicians, asylum seekers and migrants had been made in to potent symbols for the loss of a nation-state that once à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"belongedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to its people and afforded them certain privileges as citizens.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Kundnani, 2007: 65) This argument is stating that through newspapers persistence in covering issues of economy and well being, the Mail amongst others, tend to shift the blame of these national problems on to asylum seekers, from communities such as Muslims, for increasing the population and adding to pre-existing problems such as rises in unemployment. The only critique of this concept adding to the misrepresentation and islamophobic nature of the Mail, is that this problem spans over a huge area and is historically embedded within a nationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s way of thinking. My research aims to uncover the day to day anti-Islamic features of the Mail and expose the problems of intentional or institutional racism that could potentially be fixed. In some ways, previous literature has explained that events such as 9/11 and other Islam related terrorist activities give acceptance to emerging islamophobic voices or views within the media. Chris Allenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s chapter in Muslim Britain: Communities under pressure, highlights the enabling of publishing extreme right views on terroristà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s religions without backlash. In the wake of Baroness Thatcherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s condemnation of Muslim leaders in the Times, insisting that all Muslims à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" as a homogeneous group à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" should share responsibility for the attacks (4 October 2001). The Telegraph days later published an article entitled à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"This War Is not about Terror, Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s about Islamà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (7 October 2001). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“This article sought not only to praise Baroness Thatcherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s stance, but also confirm that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Westernà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ fears were justified because à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"some three-quarters of the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s migrants in the last decade are said to have been Muslims (these) escapees, victims, scapegoats, malefactors and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sleepersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? are awaiting their moment.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Allen, 2005: 61) Jonathan Birtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s chapter in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Muslims in Britainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ also agrees with this post 9/11 islamophobic reaction from the press without simply analysing the textual content of a newspaper: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“After 9/11, the more prejudicial media comment portrayed British Muslim communities, and especially their young men, as a dangerous and unpatriotic fifth column, which were sympathetic to anti-West resistance and, indeed, the use of violent terror. Mass communications today shape and order these Islamophobic moral panics and the reactive defence to them.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Birt, 2009: 217) Here, we can see Birt is agreeing that post terrorist activities, the media is allowed to give a free press voice to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"racistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ views and opinions without fear of backlash from media regulators. The defect in analysing the islamophobic nature of publications such as the Mail surrounding terrorist actions is that it is to be expected. There is bound to be a bad press reaction to national identities and religious viewpoints, how far the negative portrayal of those identities goes without trepidation of media regulators punishment, is an issue that needs to be addressed. The British Journalism Review (March 2006) argues that the same harmful representation of Muslims within the media is the same for other terrorist groups such as the IRA. One can see similarities between views of Catholics from Ulster in the 1980à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s and Muslims today, that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“religious affiliationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? trumped all other affiliations: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“In Britain and the United States the popular line was that if you were a Catholic, you probably supported the IRA. Today, if you are a Muslim, the popular line is that you are probably anti-western or fundamentalist. This is not to say that journalism was and is responsible for these views, but rather that de-contextualised coverage did and does little to throw cold water on old stereotypes.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? The closest literature relating to the topic title comes from Elizabeth Pooleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. The book analyses the current situation regarding the image of Muslims by tracking the development of this form of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"new racismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ from earlier works. Poole says that the theme of immigration as a problem has now transferred to Muslims (van Dijk 1991), due to, as Lueg (1995) says a population à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"explosionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the Middle East. British Muslims and their homogeny to other Muslims become the feared à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"fifth columnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ within (Runnymede Trust 1997). This combined with the discussion of numbers of people à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"invadingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ the country depicts aspirations of taking over the world, not seeking asylum. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The combination of the hostile threat and movement of Islam promotes the idea that it needs to be managed in a way that allows varied prejudicial practices to continueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Poole, 2002: 47). What Poole is saying is that a plain dislike of the notion of Islam cannot be seen as the central feature of hostility towards Muslims. Attitudes to Muslims derive from à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"a mixture of xenophobia and racismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ whereby newspapers such as the Mail can discuss or mainly criticise some of the practices of Islam without being seen to be unashamedly prejudice towards Muslims. Another adjoining piece of literature that many academics have drawn from when discussing this topic, is Edward Saidà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world (1981). Said argues that the siege of the American embassy in Iran in 1981 and its media coverage initiated an increased attention and portrayal of Islam with danger, militancy and anti-Western sentiment. The text examines the genesis and ramifications of the mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s monolithic images of Islam and reveals the twisting of fact that underlies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"objectiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ coverage of the Islamic world. Said says the application of a Western ideological framework or an à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"ethnocentric way of seeingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Dahlgren and Chakrapani 1982: 45) has meant we see a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"domesticated Islamic world or those aspects considered to be newsworthyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Said 1981: 27). This has created a dichotomy between the West and Islam whereby the West is seen as judicious, civilized, developed and superior, and Islam as abnormal, undeveloped and inferior. There are a small number of published journals that closely share the intentions of this paper. Diane Frostà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Islamophobia: examining casual links between the media and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"race hateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ from à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"belowà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2007) analyses the media reporting on recent and ongoing terrorist attacks in Britain and the effect on Muslim communities. The paper discusses islamophobic tendencies within British tabloids and their connections with government policies and violence that concerns religion. Whilst it highlights the mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s promotion of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"moral panicsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ such as problems of asylum and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"raceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, it is saying British tabloids breed on these moral panics, going further than the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"threatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ that is actually presented. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Thus, the media have represented Muslims as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"collective problemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ who threaten the very fabric of British society as supporters of al-Qaida and potential suicide bombers. They are the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"folk devilsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of the twenty first centuryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Diane Frost 2008 find out how to reference journal). It is worth noting that there are strong links between increased anti-terror legislation and other government measures and the way in which publications such as the Mail criminalise Muslim communities when reporting on such measures and legislation. This type of research will be considered in the methods section of the paper. Ian Hargreaves writes a piece in the New Statesman that demonstrates the negative coverage of immigration from the Mail in relation to fuelling racist attitudes. He says: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“It is not that I view with cynicism the Daily Mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s efforts to achieve balance in its reporting of racial issues. Rather, I think the paper is misguided in discounting the encouragement its asylum coverage gives to racist sentimentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Hargreaves 2000). Reverting back to the theory that newspapers such as the Daily Mail have colonial instincts and an anti-foreigner viewpoint established within its DNA, Hargreaves is trying to say that these publications are not intending to be racist; they simply believe the types of stories concerning Islam being published are due to the public-interest factor. Christopher Allenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s journal discusses the dangerousness of the concept of Islamophobia in analytical relation with the findings of the Runnymede Trust Report (1997). The reportà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s findings concluded that Islam is inherently seen as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to the West, reinforcing the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ dualism. Taking this in to consideration, Allen says we should not be surprised à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"to see such headlines as The Daily Mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s offering, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Fanatics with a death wish: I was born in Britain but I am a Muslim firstà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Here the Mail is merely reiterating those beliefs that are lodged at the heart of Islamophobiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Allen 2008: 4). The intention of this chapter was to identify underpinning theories, themes and issues published in previous literature in order for readers to understand the intentions of the research and findings that will be developed in the methods and data analysis. Methods and methodology This chapter will discuss the research that this paper will be carrying out, the reasons for using those methods and what results are to be expected. The most appropriate methods will be discussed along with their advantages and limitations, with ethical considerations ensured so that the data is collected in an ethical way. The bulk of previous research method approaches to the mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role in the reproduction of racism are mainly content analytical; quantitative and qualitative modes picking out the use of stereotypical words, phrases or image(s) used when representing ethnic minorities (see, for example, Van Dijk 1991, 1997). The reasons for this are that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the communication process is symbolic, and deciphering it inevitably has pride of placeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Downing and Husband 2005: 26), media researchers can access this readily available material rather than examining the construction process or how readers deduce and act upon the text. This discourse analytical method systematically describes different structures and tactics of text in relation to a social or political framework. The method enables for the identification of focus on certain topics in a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"semanticà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ analysis form as well as allowing examination of the overall à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ ËÅ"organisationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of news reports. Essentially this means à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"discourse may thus be studied as the crucial interface between the social and cognitive dimensions of racismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Cottle 2000: 36). So, publications such as the Mail as a discourse in the social practice of racism can be seen as a main source for peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s racist views/beliefs. According to Berger (1998: 23) content analysts in media research à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"assume that behavioural patterns, values and attitudes found in this material reflect and affect the behaviour, attitudes and values of the people who create the materialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The advantages and reason as to why this paper will be adopting a similar style of research is that whilst being most importantly primary, there is no technology or major funds necessary and it has been known to lead to fundamental changes in the practices of an institution, profession and society as a whole. Also as Berger ( 2011: 214) says the data collected can be expressed in numbers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“These numbers provide detailed information that can be interpreted to gain insights into the mind-set of those who created the textà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Another method of research that will be employed is that of conducting surveys to gauge the attitudes and opinions of Daily Mail readers and readers of other newspapers, concerning how the paper represents ethnic minorities. This intends to highlight the negative effect a newspaper has on readerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s views of a religion such as Islam and the race of Muslim. Previous survey research done in this area comes from Fourieà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (2001) Media Studies: Institutions, theories and issues. Using a case study of the press in South Africa, the research featured a survey asking people their perceptions of racism in a number of different publications. The research was conducted by the government (ACNielsen survey) after a large number of complaints were made to the South African media regulatory body (Press Ombudsman), that certain newspapers were being overtly racist. The research found that 37% of people saw the concerned newspaper as being at least à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"fairl y racistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (the other above category being à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"very racistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢), owing to the governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s implication of fines on the newspaper if any more à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"racistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ content was published. Other survey research done by European research bodies (such as, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia) includes the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Racism and cultural diversity in the mass mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ report where a similar style of questionnaire design was used. The survey style asks the same type of question i.e. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"how racist do you think this publication/newspaper is?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ providing a spectrum of answers including; slightly racist, fairly racist and very racist. The ethical considerations that need to be addressed here is that one could condemn this research method data saying the questions are too leading or that the opinions of the researcher could play a large role in the data collected. With regards to the former limitation, it is the intention of the research to avoid the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"neutralà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ viewpoint as it would be more or less unusable data for the purposes of this study. By introducing the survey as an academic stud y to identify whether a newspaper is racist is introducing a form of bias; a four point à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Likertà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ scale should thus be used. In order to avoid people who like to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"sit on the fenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (especially concerning issues of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"racismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢), by using a smaller Likert scale, the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"neutralà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ viewpoint à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"can be avoided by using a four-point scale in which the respondent is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"forcedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to express some degree of, for example, agreement or disagreementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Davies and Mosdell 2006: 93). Also other ethical considerations were respected including obtaining the consent of the participants and ensuring that their confidentiality and anonymity were maintained. For the content analysis of the Daily Mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perceived inciting of racial hatred, the content that will be analysed will be the amount of articles within a time period of 6 months the issue of Islam and Muslims is reported on in a negative manner. The practice of content analysis, established by the likes of Berelson (1971) and Krippendorff (1980) means identifying the sub-components of an issue featured in the text(s) to be analysed and then studying that media in question over a designated set period of time, counting the amount of times they turn up. This method enables the recognition of certain contours of coverage on a certain subject or issue, allowing for questions to be asked such as; did some newspapers repeatedly feature stories related to people of colour and were there periods of increased or lesser coverage surrounding activities of extremist groups? The types of articles that will be used in the research (see appendices for examples) present Muslims and the religion of Islam as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"problemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and their difficulties with conflicting issues when integrating themselves within British society. The negative context, in relation to identifying relevant articles will adopt a similar method employed by van Dijkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1991) research. Here the headlines of newspaper articles concerning issues of race were identified and then proceeded to count how many times negative words such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"policeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"riotà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ were used, illustrating the negative context in which issues concerning ethnic minorities were raised within a certain publication. As Hartmann and Husband (1974, 1976) suggest, this demonstrates how news issues concerning ethnic minorities tend to be based around notions of racial tension or crime problems, identifying members of race grou ps as a problem for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (white society) to deal with. The research will compare the amount of times within a 6 month (do time period here) period these types of articles concerning Islam are presented in the Mail as well as how many times an article concerning the neo-Nazi anti-Muslim group The English Defence League (EDL) is shown. This will hope to demonstrate a correlation between increased amounts of Islamic coverage at a certain time with articles on/activities of the EDL. This will also serve to highlight to an extent, the intensifying nexus between extremist right media and movements (Downing and Husband 2005). With regards to the questionnaires that will be collected, the scope and design need to be established. The scope or amount of participants that the research intends to gather are as follows; 150 readers of The Daily Mail and double that amount, 300 of readers of all other newspapers. As the research method employed to gather this amount of data means standing outside a busy newsagents (W H Smithà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s in Lime Street Station, Liverpool) and asking people who have bought newspapers to answer a short survey, to attempt to gather any more than that provided would take a considerable amount of time and effort. As people are normally quite reluctant to take part in surveys due to time constraints the survey will not ask for some of the standard demographic information such as age; gender; nationality; ethnicity; religion etc. As well as cutting down on the amount of time it takes to complete a survey and the ethical considerations concerning anonymity of the participants, the demographic information would be irrelevant considering the questions that are being asked. The questionnaire will ask what newspaper the participant reads, usually a quick and easy question to answer considering the people who I will be asking have just recently bought a newspaper from the newsagents and will realise this is what my questionnaire is concerning. The questions will then be presented to the participant asking their opinion on a statement from a spectrum of answers, these being, for the first question: slightly racist, fairly racist and very racist, and for the second question: strongly disagree, disagree, agree and strongly agree. The questions and their framing (with tick boxes) will be as follows: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"How racist do you think a) The Daily Mail b) The Guardian and c) The Daily Star are?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Slightly racist Fairly Racist Very Racist (Repeated for b) and c)) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Do you think the Daily Mail supports extremist groups (such as the English Defence League)?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Strongly disagree ii) Disagree iii)Agree iv) Strongly agree This method does not force a yes or no answer that some participants may be reluctant to give considering the invasive nature of the questions. At the same time it could be considered to be avoiding leading questions. Where the participant may realise the questions are intended to produce certain types of generalisations so they would answer accordingly for the purposes of the research, they have some form of choice in which to express their opinions. The two types of research methods that this paper will be employing will be that of content analysis within a theoretical framework and surveys conducted. The aim is to achieve a form of triangulation in which to infer meanings from when analysing and evaluating the collected data. Data, analysis and discussion Conclusion

To what extent does financial engineering have an important role - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1649 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Engineering Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? As we are in modern world today, everything around us has been changing continuously. The world that we see today is different from the world in 40 years ago. Technologies are one example, which has been improving dramatically. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "To what extent does financial engineering have an important role" essay for you Create order Letter had been a popular way to communicate and then land line telephone came to help communication more easily and the following is mobile phones, which have more and more convenient until today. The most important technologies are computer and internet. These technologies have improved from local communication to instant global communications. People from Africa can talk with his friend in Thailand within a few second of connecting. Furthermore, money can be transferred from country to another country within one day. Undoubtedly, people around the world have equal chance to take a great number of news, information of stock market and financial figures from all over the world. Hence, financial markets will respond without delay. It is clear that globalization has made information in financial market spread fast and developed in term of size and complication. Implication of globalization in financial markets is that there are more speculators, which increase volatility of financi al markets. The meaning of volatility of financial markets is amount ofÂÂ  uncertainty or riskÂÂ  about the size of changes inÂÂ  aÂÂ  securitys value. Due to the volatility of markets, they created an increasing demand for intelligent financial product to manage financial risk. This foundation contributes to establishment of financial engineering (Galitz 1994). This essay will provide background information of financial markets and financial engineering and then examine the role of financial engineering in financial market. The reader of this essay might have basic background in finance. Hence, technical terms are defined clearly and avoided to discuss in deep knowledge. Background knowledge of Financial Market Financial market is a market where financial asset are exchanged (Fabozzi, Modigliani, Jones, Ferri 2002). Financial asset can be classified as tangible asset (such as, money, building, land or machinery) or intangible asset (future benefit, patents). Participants in financial market are household, corporations or government. There are various ways that financial market can be classified. It can be classify by financial claim, such as debt market and equity market. Another type of classification, which is generally used, is classified by financial assets that are traded in. Firstly, it is capital market, where is divided into two submarket; stock market and bond market. Secondly, money market, it is a source of short-term borrowing and lending. Thirdly, derivative market, this market is necessary for financial engineering because it is where financial instruments are used to manage financial risk. Financial market can be found in almost countries in the world because of three main functions of financial markets. First, interaction of buyers and sellers in the market determine the price of the traded asset. The price depends on demand(buyer) and supply(seller) (Fabozzi 2002). Second, the market provides liquidity, which is offer investor to sell financial asset (Fabozzi 2002). Third, it reduces cost of transactions, which is search costs and information costs (advertisement) (Fabozzi 2002). Background knowledge of Financial Engineering The term financial engineering is defined in numerous definitions, but most definitions are about managing and reducing risk. It is generally defined that is application of various mathematical, statistical and computational techniques to solve practical problems in finance. Similarly, a few of definitions in books are explained in the same way. First, it is referred to adjustment or tuning existing financial product to increase profits or reduce risk in financial market that changing continuously (Eales 2000). Another definition that totally clarifies the concept of financial engineering is Financial engineering is the use of financial instruments to restructure an existing financial profile into one having more desirable properties (Galitz 1994). It seems that this term has wide range of definition due to a vast of utilization and knowledge in this field. Goal of financial engineering is different in each position in financial markets. There are two sides in financial market, which are buyer and seller. For buyer side, such as investor, an achievement is to take high profits from investment in financial markets. For seller side, such as the company treasurer, it may be diminished influences of currency on a project that is in initial stage (Galitz 1994). Hence, achievements of financial engineering depend on position in financial market. Instruments of financial engineering Mechanical engineer has knowledge about materials and machineries system such as, theories of solid and gear system. This knowledge seems to be tools of mechanical engineer that are applied to create new machinery. Similarly, financial engineering has knowledge about financial market, mathematics and computer programming, which are tools for managing risk in financial market. Many of instruments were invented or developed to do a particular job, whereas they were found to have an extensive variety of other uses as well. Therefore, each type of situation in financial market needs to be supplied by suitable instruments. Financial instruments can be divided into six sectors, which are fixed income instruments, equities, currencies and commodities, derivatives, credit instruments and structured products (Neftci 2008). In this essay will explain only financial instrument in derivatives market, which has futures contracts and options. However, swaps is another financial instrument in derivative market, I would not describe it in the essay due to complication of its structure. There are distinct characteristics of each financial instrument in derivatives market. First, a futures contract is a contract that is an agreement between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a certain time in future for a certain price (Hull 2006). For example, in July 2010, company A sign a future contract between company B that company B will sell live cattle 50 units to company A with unit price of 100 pounds in Dec 5, 2010. This means that at Dec 5, 2010 company A have to pay 5000 pounds to company B and company B have to transfer 50 live cattle to company A. The contracts can be any asset, such as pork, sugar, wool, stock indices and currencies. The benefits of futures in term of managing risk will be explained in later. The second instrument in derivative market is options. There are two basic types of options. A call option offers the holder the right to buy the underlying ass et by a certain date and a certain price. On the other hand, a put option gives the holder right to sell the underlying asset by a certain date and a certain price (Hull 2006). The price of the contract is called exercise price or strike price. The distinction between futures and options is that options allow the holder does not have to exercise, which mean holder have choices to sell or buy at favorite price, but the holder of future contract must buy or sell at certain price. Consequently, both futures contracts and options have similar condition, but they are use in different situation, which will be explained in next paragraph. Role of financial engineering in financial market (450) As I mentioned, roles of financial engineering are divided into sell side and buy side. Financial engineering is useful for those buy side and sell side. To begin with buy side, they can be person or company who want to buy futures contracts or options and used the contracts as a tool to hedge the risk. For example, suppose that it is Sep 5, 2009 , Import Co., based in United States , know that it will have to pay 10,000 pounds on Dec 5, 2009, for goods it has purchased from a British supplier. The USD-GBP is important factor that affect to the exact money (USD) that have to pay to British supplier on Dec 5, 2009. Hence, Import Co. can use futures contracts to hedge its foreign exchange risk by buying pounds (GBP) from financial institution in the 3-month forward. This would have the effect of fixing price to be paid to British supplier because whatever exchange rate in the next three months is Import Co can pay the same amount of money by using exchange rate in future contracts. F inancial engineering has responsibility to calculate exchange rate of future contracts that should buy. Hence, Risk in foreign exchange rate can be managed by financial engineering. Moreover, the buy side can be investors, who use financial engineering to maximize the income with utilizing the idle money. Financial engineering have mathematics and computer programming skill, which can create a model of any financial indices with a certain uncertainty. This is some examples of using financial engineering from buy side in financial market. For sell side, can be financial institution that set the price of futures and options in each contract. Price of options and futures for each contract have profound implication because they have to set in appropriate position. It seems setting price of goods. If the price is too low, company might lose money, whereas if the price is too high, consumers might not interest in this product. Another important role is that creating new financial instr uments. Financial market is developing everyday with an increasing of complicated structure. Thus, new financial instruments need to be created to manage new type of risk and There are wide ranges of financial instruments and they have numerous roles in financial markets. Development of financial market needs to support by new instruments. Hence, the role of financial engineering will be increased. Financial crisis and financial engineering (400) Conclusion (200) Financial engineering has crucial role in financial market today and it is increasing continuously. Due to globalization, financial market has been improving. Volatility of financial market also increases as well. This is the reason that financial engineering was established. Financial engineering has major role is that managing risk in financial market. There are many type of instruments that be applied into the market, such as futures contract and options. For example, future contracts can be used for hedge foreign exchange rate. There are also other types of instruments for dealing with financial problem. Consequently, in the next century, financial engineering might be interested more and more.